Adaptations for High Altitude Birds

Adaptations for High Altitude Birds Birds have developed the ability to maintain flight at various altitudes. The focus of this essay was placed specifically on flight at high altitudes. The characteristics of birds which maintain flight at high altitudes were found to be enhanced gaseous exchange efficiency, higher O2 affinity haemoglobin, and increase O2 diffusion to muscle fibers as a result of an increase in capillary-fiber ratio in a high-altitude hypoxic environment. It has also been seen that birds found at high altitudes have larger wingspans thereby reducing the energetic costs of flight in low-density air. Key words: Altitude, hemoglobin, hypoxic, wingspan Introduction Though not all birds are capable of flight, most birds are commonly recognized by flight. Birds are found all over the surface of the Earth (Bicudo et al, 2010) in a variety of environments which they are adapted to. Here we will explore the physiology of high altitude bird flight. The main focus will be placed on migrating birds due to the l arge amount of research performed on the species and migrating birds are found at a huge range of altitudes. As stated by Bicudo et al (2010), â€Å"High altitude experienced by birds that reside or breed in high mountains or by migrating birds that must cross such ranges† are considered to be high elevation specialist’s. Factors associated with high altitude causes this environment to be especially challenging for avian flight, these factors includes â€Å"high ambient wind speeds, low air temperatures, low oxygen availability and low air density† (Altshuler and Dudley, 2006). These factors may be detrimental in a birds’ flight performance specifically on bird biomechanics (lift and drag) of avian flight (Altshuler and Dudley, 2006). A consequence of the factors may result in energetics cost being higher in the severely hypoxic and cold environment (Butler and Bishop, 2000). The objective of this essay is to discuss the many features of birds which appea r to be important for high altitude flight (Scott, 2011). Environmental factors at high altitude As stated by Altshuler and Dudley (2006), a gradient in altitude indicates a change in numerous environmental parameters. As altitudes increase, temperature and humidity decrease, however, day length or solar angle of incidence remains the same (Altshuler and Dudley, 2006). An altitude increase, there is a systematic decrease O2 partial pressure (Bicudo et al., 2010). This is one of the most importance changes taking place with regards to respiratory and metabolism due to the reduced availability of oxygen. As partial pressure reduces, there is an inversely increase in the gaseous diffusion coefficient. Furthermore, wind speed increases with altitude, studies propose that birds can minimize their energy costs of flights through the use of wind assistance (Bicudo et al., 2010). As altitude increases, there is also a noticeable decrease with in water content. This decrease in water content in cool air at high elevations may result in desiccation (Bicudo et al., 2010). Thus high oxygen demands for flight are at odds with a decreased O2 availability, air density and lift (Altshuler and Dudley, 2006). Physiology of flight at high altitude Muscles Flight requires a high endurance capacity, for this reason, it relies on oxidative metabolism for energy (Bicudo et al. 2010). The pectoralis muscles of a bird is considered the â€Å"flight motor† of a bird and constitute up to 35% of the total body mass (Bicudo et al. 2010). Long distance migrants â€Å"flight motor† muscles possess rapidly oxidative glycolytic muscle fibers and short distance migrants â€Å"flight motor† muscles possess muscle fibers with a much lower oxidative capacity as well as fast-acting glycolytic fibers (Bicudo et al. 2010). It should be noted that muscle capillary-per-fiber number is higher in highly aerobic pectoral muscles and less aerobic leg muscles for high altitude birds (B icudo et al. 2010).

Safety Incentive Program Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Safety Incentive Program - Research Paper Example The researcher states that there has been a recent scrutiny and analysis of safety programs in organizations by the United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration in order to ascertain their effectiveness in the organizations. Many previous studies on safety incentive programs emphasized the undependable and anecdotal evidence that assesses the advantages and disadvantages of applying incentives on safety programs. The long-term impact of the safety incentive program on the construction of safety in the intervention period has remained hesitant. In general, safety incentive program aims to reduce the losses of the organizations resulting from the work injuries and accidents. Reducing occupational accidents, injury incidents and work down through rewards and application of incentive on safety program archetypical concern in many organizations. In the process of setting the goals, every single employee is involved especially the top management as a safety incentive program is all-inclusive. It is a moral boost to have every particular employee at the same level. All workers therefore need to be motivated to get involved by providing ideas or rewarding employees who identifies safety hazards. Safety incentive program that are considered effective outlines achievable goals, objectives, and assigns responsibility and obligations to employees and management, and implements the safety program goals. In the determination of safety program goals, much focus and emphasis is put where the occupational accidents and work injuries are taking place. Again, the work time lost due to the injuries in the workplace is intensely analyzed. Through doing this, focus areas are identified and required backgrounds are determined so as to set reasonable objectives that will lead to the accomplishment of the safety incentive goals.

Operation Strategy w3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Operation Strategy w3 - Essay Example The difficulty is the services marketing arises because there is an absence of any physical product in the business. The customer’s needs vary from one individual to another and because of this reason; services have to be modified in order to serve each client. There are four basic process strategies that are described as follows: - The strategy focuses on the product as the name suggests and it works towards the betterment of product and service quality (van de ven, 1992). The low level of standardization is used while; the product designed is generic in nature. This strategy requires the division of a process into various steps and these steps are taken separately in order to minimize the possibility of an error (van de ven, 1992). The assembly line manufacturing is a common instance. The strategy focuses on designing a specific product for a client so that his or her needs can be fulfilled optimally (van de ven, 1992). The customer satisfaction is the ultimate concern of this approach. The example includes the garment shop that is vending professional suiting for both males and females. The concept is to take a specific order in the light of purchaser’s buying power and other aspects. The idea is to maximize customer satisfaction. Reimann, M., Schilke, O., & Thomas, J. (2010). Customer relationship management and firm performance: the mediating role of business strategy. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 38 (3) ,